Primary Sources (1) Speech by Gaius Marius in the Senate, quoted by Sallust in his book The Jugurthine War (c. 40 BC) . Secondary sources are a step removed from primary sources. Tools for primary source analysis. However, despite this portrayal, particularly from Plutarch's accounts, it is difficult to determine just how culpable Marius and Sulla were for the chaos that engulfed the Roman Republic A list of useful online sources for reading about Rome at the time of Sulla Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius - Includes maps of the Roman world, texts of several primary sources, and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. In 89BC, one of the tribunes of the plebs passed the lex Plautia Papiria, which granted citizenship to all of the allies (with exception for the Samnites and Lucanians still under arms). [18] Lacking ready money, Sulla spent his youth among Romes comedians, actors, lute players, and dancers. [76] Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Upon his arrival, Sulla had his quaestor Lucullus order Sura, who had vitally delayed Mithridates' advances into Greece, to retreat back into Macedonia. He was also notorious for his personal relationships . [79], Sulla then had Sulpicius' legislation invalidated on the grounds that they had been passed by force. 106/10 The quaestor L.Sulla arrives at Marius' camp with reinforcements from They are often based on primary sources. The next year, 96BC, he assigned "probably pro consule as was customary" to Cilicia in Asia Minor. N.S. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. Encyclopaedia Romana - Has essays on several aspects of ancient Rome. [102] According to the ancient sources, Archelaus commanded between 60,000 and 120,000 men;[103] in the aftermath, he allegedly escaped with only 10,000. Learning in Black and White. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. Sulla, who opposed the Gracchian popularis reforms, was an optimate; though his coming to the side of the traditional Senate originally could be described as atavistic when dealing with the tribunate and legislative bodies, while more visionary when reforming the court system, governorships, and membership of the Senate. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. The Acropolis was then besieged. 1963), and Stewart Perowne, Death of the Roman Republic: From 146 B.C. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . Sulla's military coup was enabled by Marius's military reforms, that bound the army's loyalty with the general rather than to the Roman Republic, and permanently destabilized the Roman power structure. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. [56] When the pro-Italian plebeian tribune Marcus Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91BC while trying again to pass a bill extending Roman citizenship, the Italians revolted. Provides tips on how to read and use primary sources in historical research. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Partian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. The Roman military and political leader Sulla "Felix" (138-78 B.C.E.) [97], Early in 87BC, Sulla transited the Adriatic for Thessaly with his five legions. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. "[147] Plutarch claims he had seen Sulla's personal motto carved on his tomb on the Campus Martius. [26] Sulla was assigned by lot to his staff. History has portrayed them as being emblematic for a generation of chaos in Roman society. Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. At the start of his second consulship in 80BC with Metellus Pius, Sulla resigned his dictatorship. [40], In 102BC, the invaders returned and moved to force the Alps. [109] When Flaccus' consular army marched through Macedonia towards Thrace, his command was usurped by his legate Gaius Flavius Fimbria, who had Flaccus killed before chasing Mithridates with his army into Asia itself. Proscribing or outlawing every one of those whom he perceived to have acted against the best interests of the Republic while he was in the east, Sulla ordered some 1,500 nobles (i.e. Sulla's law waived the sponsio, allowing such cases to be heard without it. A primary source (also called original . His execution in AD 62 on the orders of emperor Nero made him the last of the Cornelii Sullae. Sulla's body was cremated and his ashes placed in his tomb in the Campus Martius. The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Sulla is a central character in the first three, Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the, His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. [17] Sallust declares him well-read, intelligent, and he was fluent in Greek. [131] The purge went on for several months. [41] After the failure of negotiations, the Romans and Cimbri engaged in the Battle of the Raudian Field in which the Cimbri were routed and destroyed. Cornelius Lucius Sulla; Lucius Cornelius Cinna (elder) Marcus Licinius Crassus; Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) Julius Caesar; Marcus . He can hardly have been in any doubt. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. Sulla's body was brought into the city on a golden bier, escorted by his veteran soldiers, and funeral orations were delivered by several eminent senators, with the main oration possibly delivered by Lucius Marcius Philippus or Hortensius. Skilfully withdrawing to Clusium, he delegated to Norbanus command of troops to hold Metellus Pius. When it came to hiding his intentions, his mind was incredibly unfathomable, yet with all else he was extremely generous; especially with money. 45-120 CE) was a Platonist philosopher, best known to the general public as author of his "Parallel Lives" of paired Greek and Roman statesmen and military leaders.He was a voluminous writer, author also of a collection of "Moralia" or "Ethical Essays," mostly in dialogue format, many of them devoted to philosophical topics, not at all . Sulla was a man to whom, up to victory, sufficient praise can hardly be given, and for whom, after victory, no criticism can be adequate. Due to his meeting the minimum age requirement of thirty, he stood for the quaestorship in 108BC. Jugurtha had fled to his father-in-law, King Bocchus I of Mauretania (a nearby kingdom); Marius invaded Mauretania, and after a pitched battle in which both Sulla and Marius played important roles in securing victory, Bocchus felt forced by Roman arms to betray Jugurtha. "[156], He was said to have a duality between being charming, easily approachable, and able to joke and cavort with the most simple of people, while also assuming a stern demeanor when he was leading armies and as dictator. [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. The Senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum against him and was successful in levying large amount of men and materiel from the Italians. Se l'azienda ha pi di 200 dipendenti, deve essere presente anche il rappresentante sindacale aziendale (RSA). Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. The Athenian politician Aristion had himself elected as strategos epi ton hoplon and established a tyranny over the city. Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. After one of the other legates was killed by his men, Sulla refused to discipline them except by issuing a proclamation imploring them to show more courage against the enemy. His third wife was Cloelia, whom Sulla divorced due to sterility. The circumstances of his relative poverty as a young man left him removed from his patrician brethren, enabling him to consort with revelers and experience the baser side of human nature. Almost breaking before Marius' makeshift forces, Sulla then stationed troops all over the city before summoning the Senate and inducing it to outlaw Marius, Marius' son, Sulpicius, and nine others. Historian Suetonius records that when agreeing to spare Caesar, Sulla warned those who were pleading his case that he would become a danger to them in the future, saying, "In this Caesar, there are many Mariuses. The Roman Republic and territories in 100 B.C. Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that "Sulla now began to make blood flow, and he filled the city with deaths without number or limit," further alleging that many of the murdered victims had nothing to do with Sulla, though Sulla killed them to "please his adherents.". A primary source is an original object or document -- the raw material or first-hand information. Primary sources are documents, images, relics, or other works that provide firsthand details of a historical or scientific event. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was born in 138 BCE in Puteoli, Italy. Sarah Cooper teaches 8th grade U.S. history and is assistant head for academic life at Flintridge Preparatory School in La Canada, Calif. Sarah is the . National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). Ozzy Osbourne Grandchildren, Dalton Smith Pogo Stick, Best Basketball Camps In Ontario, Rinnai R53i Parts Diagram, Mennonite Vs Amish Vs Mormon, There, while giving a speech, he had three or four thousand Samnite prisoners butchered, to the shock of the attending senators. Primary Sources on the Web: Finding, Evaluating, Using. Understanding Context: Awareness of the interconnection of events from the past, present and future. Newspapers. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force. [35], In 104BC, the Cimbri and the Teutones, two Germanic tribes who had bested the Roman legions on several occasions, seemed to again be heading for Italy. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. Beyond personal enmity, Caesar Strabo may also have stood for office because it was evident that Rome's relations with the Pontic king, Mithridates VI Eupator, were deteriorating and that the consuls of 88 would be assigned an extremely lucrative and glorious command against Pontus. Click the title for location and availability information. The Samnite and anti-Sullan commanders were then hunted down as "for all intents and purposes the civil war in Italy was over". [137][15] In a manner that the historian Suetonius thought arrogant, Julius Caesar later mocked Sulla for resigning the dictatorship. Biography Roman military commander and dictator of the Roman republic (81-80 BC). Lucius other name: Sulla Details individual; military/naval; official; Roman; Male. Primary sources are most often produced around the time of the events you are studying. Negotiations broke down after one of Scipio's lieutenants seized a town held by Sulla in violation of a ceasefire. He was devoted to pleasure but more devoted to glory. Sulla (P. Cornelius Sulla) - Roman praetor, 212 B.C. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. Gaius Marius, a lieutenant of Metellus, returned to Rome to stand for the consulship in 107BC. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. [110], After peace was reached, Sulla advanced on Fimbria's forces, which deserted their upstart commander. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. [111], The peace reached with Mithridates was condemned in ancient times as a betrayal of Roman interests for Sulla's private interest in fighting and winning the coming civil war. Encyclopedias. He was, however, defeated. And for his consular colleague, he attempted to transfer to him the command of Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo's army. "[157] This duality, or inconsistency, made him very unpredictable and "at the slightest pretext, he might have a man crucified, but, on another occasion, would make light of the most appalling crimes; or he might happily forgive the most unpardonable offenses, and then punish trivial, insignificant misdemeanors with death and confiscation of property. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often empirical studies . Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. [81] He sent his army back to Capua[82] and then conducted the elections for that year, which yielded a resounding rejection of him and his allies. Yes, if the painting originated at the time it depicts, then it is a primary source. A primary source is a first-hand or contemporary account of an event or topic. The young Gaius Julius Caesar, as Cinna's son-in-law, became one of Sulla's targets, and fled the city. 134/3 eagle's brood foretells the number of Marius' consulships. However, in some cases, paintings are considered secondary sources. 1011 accepts these inheritances without much comment and places them around Sulla's turning thirty years of age. He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (l. 138 - 78 BCE) enacted his constitutional reforms (81 BCE) as dictator to strengthen the Roman Senate's power. Shortly before Sulla's first consulship, the Romans fought the bloody Social War against their . [11], Sulla, the son of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the grandson of Publius Cornelius Sulla,[12] was born into a branch of the patrician gens Cornelia, but his family had fallen to an impoverished condition at the time of his birth. Sulla then prohibited ex-tribunes from ever holding any other office, so ambitious individuals would no longer seek election to the tribunate, since such an election would end their political career. [123], After the younger Marius' defeat, Sulla had the Samnite war captives massacred, which triggered an uprising in his rear. [48] The Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, was executed upon his return to Parthia for allowing this humiliation; the Parthians, however, ratified the treaty reached, which established the Euphrates as a clear boundary between Parthia and Rome. The Senate immediately sent an embassy demanding an explanation for his seeming march on the fatherland, to which Sulla responded boldly, saying that he was freeing it from tyrants. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix[8] (/sl/; 13878 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. [73] The consuls, fearful of intimidation of Sulpicius and his armed bodyguards, declared a suspension of public business (iustitium) which led to Sulpicius and his mob forcing the consuls to flee. Marius and Sulla are very curious figures in the late Roman Republic. After another attempt to relieve Praeneste failed, Carbo lost his nerve and attempted to retreat to Africa; his lieutenants attempted again to relieve Praeneste but after that again failed, marched on Rome to force Sulla from his well-defended positions. The cultivated grapevine (Vitis vinifera ssp. Marius and his son, along with some others, escaped to Africa. Studying the past supports good citizenship, which is requisite for a fair and effective democracy. [66] Buttressed by success against Rome's traditional enemies, the Samnites, and general Roman victory across Italy, Sulla stood for and was elected easily to the consulship of 88BC; his colleague would be Quintus Pompeius Rufus. With military and diplomatic victory, his political fortunes seemed positive. [118], For 82BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. You may copy and distribute the translations and commentaries in this resource, or parts of such translations and commentaries, in any medium . senators and equites) executed, although as many as 9,000 people were estimated to have been killed. [107], In the aftermath of the battle, Sulla was approached by Archelaus for terms. The populares nonetheless seized power once he left with his army to Asia. Social War, also called Italic War, or Marsic War, (90-89 bc), rebellion waged by ancient Rome's Italian allies (socii) who, denied the Roman franchise, fought for independence. [67], Sulla's election to the consulship, successful likely due to his military success in 89BC, was not uncontested. [43] Refusing to stand for an aedileship (which, due to its involvement in hosting public games, was extremely expensive), Sulla became a candidate for the praetorship in 99BC. Sulla, in full Lucius Cornelius Sulla or later Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, (born 138 bcedied 79 bce, Puteoli [Pozzuoli, near Naples, Italy]), victor in the first full-scale civil war in Roman history (88-82 bce) and subsequently dictator (82-79), who carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic during the last century of its existence. Websites. He's remembered best for bringing his soldiers into Rome, the killing of Roman citizens, and his military skill in several areas. The breakdown allowed Sulla to play the aggrieved party and place blame on his enemies for any further bloodshed. Tip: If you are unsure if a source you have found is primary, talk to your instructor, librarian, or archivist. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. Church and W. J. Brodribb. In the decades before Sulla had become dictator, Roman politics became increasingly violent. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to the truth of what actually happened during an historical event or time period. While besieging Pompeii, an Italian relief force came under Lucius Cluentius, which Sulla defeated and forced into flight towards Nola. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. Beginning Research Activities Student activities designed to help . The Battle of Sacriportus occurred between the forces of Young Marius and the battle-hardened legions of Sulla. This distinction is important because it will affect how you understand these sources. [136] Sulla's reforms both looked to the past (often repassing former laws) and regulated for the future, particularly in his redefinition of maiestas (treason) laws and in his reform of the Senate. Perseus Collection of Greek and Roman Material - Has numerous texts of primary sources. 719-549-2333. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . Killing Cluentius before the city's walls, Sulla then invested the town and for his efforts was awarded a grass crown, the highest Roman military honour. The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla - Primary Source Edition Paperback - September 30, 2013 by Augustus Henry Beesly (Author) 3.4 out of 5 stars 4 ratings Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. Sulla almost certainly received a normal education for his class, grounded in ancient Greek and Latin classics. Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. No action was taken against the troops nor action taken to relieve Pompey Strabo of command. Through Sulla's reforms to the Plebeian Council, tribunes lost the power to initiate legislation. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. Book Sources: Bloody Sunday - Selma to Montgomery March (1965) A selection of books/e-books available in Trible Library. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. Sulla, meanwhile, had to allow matters to unfold beyond his control. In 109, Rome sent Quintus Caecilius Metellus to continue the war. La riunione periodica sulla sicurezza e la salute dei lavoratori deve essere convocata dal datore di lavoro e devono partecipare almeno il rappresentante dei lavoratori per la sicurezza (RLS) e il medico competente. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. Sulla then left for Capua before joining an army near Nola in southern Italy.[74]. Keep in mind as you use this website, the Web is always changing and evolving. He could acknowledge the law as valid. To do so would mean total humiliation at the hands of his opponents, the end of his political career, and perhaps even further danger to his life. By. aking of America (MoA) is a digital library of primary sources in American social history from the antebellum period through reconstruction. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . There, Sulla attacked him in an indecisive battle. Examples of tertiary sources include encyclopedias and dictionaries, chronologies, almanacs, directories, indexes, and bibliographies. "[133][134], At the end of 82 BC or the beginning of 81 BC,[135] the Senate appointed Sulla dictator legibus faciendis et reipublicae constituendae causa ("dictator for the making of laws and for the settling of the constitution"). Ancient accounts of Sulla's death indicate that he died from liver failure or a ruptured gastric ulcer (symptomized by a sudden hemorrhage from his mouth, followed by a fever from which he never recovered), possibly caused by chronic alcohol abuse. He had one child from this union, before his first wife's death. [64], Political developments in Rome also started to bring an end to the war. From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. He was then assigned by lot to serve under the consul Gaius Marius. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. He used his powers to purge his opponents, and reform Roman constitutional laws, to restore the primacy of the Senate and limit the power of the tribunes of the plebs.
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