who paid for rosa parks funeral

Did you encounter any technical issues? Following the death of Michael Mike Ilitch, the founder of Little Mourners pay tribute to Rosa Parks Clinton recalls being inspired by civil rights pioneer. Rosa Parks's Life timeline | Funeral Honors Features Image Gallery Media Inquiry News Release Social Media Components. [19]:690 Rosa took numerous jobs, ranging from domestic worker to hospital aide. Mrs. Keith even showed the reporter a copy of a 1994 check for $2,000 from Little Caesars Enterprises to Riverfront Apartments. Cemeteries Crematories Funeral Planning Funeral Directors Parks. Detroit Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick, not yet born when Parks took her famous stand, was one of many who attributed their success to the doors Parks opened. Its members elected as their president Martin Luther King Jr., a relative newcomer to Montgomery, who was a young and mostly unknown minister of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. It was revealed in an article published by the Sports Business Daily in 2014 that Ilitch had. For more than a decade, Ilitch had quietly paid for Rosa Parks' apartment in downtown Detroit, according to CNN affiliate WXYZ. .Leon Higginbotham-Funeral Booklet-Nelson Mandela-Rosa Parks-Langston Hughes at the best online prices at eBay! After the service, an honor guard from the Michigan National Guard draped the U.S. flag over the casket and carried it to a horse-drawn hearse, which was intended to carry it, in daylight, to the cemetery. top mum influencers australia LIVE rosa parks funeral program - A Tribute A Tribute to Rosa Parks: Memorial Speeches from Barack Obama, Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton, Jesse Jackson, T.D. A church packed with 4,000 mourners celebrated the life of Rosa Parks Wednesday in an impassioned, song-filled funeral, with a crowd of notables giving thanks for the humble woman whose dignity and defiance helped transform a nation. I had plenty to do without having to end up in jail. Parks was deeply saddened and angry at the news, particularly because Till's case had garnered much more attention than any of the cases she and the Montgomery NAACP had worked onand yet, the two men still walked free. .component--type-recirculation .item:nth-child(5) { Medical bills and time missed from work caused financial strain that required her to accept assistance from church groups and admirers. BTW the dumbasses ran out of gas in the hurst. The woman we honored today held no public office, she wasnt a wealthy woman, didnt appear in the society pages, said Sen. Barack Obama, D-Ill. And yet when the history of this country is written, it is this small, quiet woman whose name will be remembered long after the names of senators and presidents have been forgotten.. Little Caesars Founder Mike Ilitch Paid for Rosa Parks's Rent and Told No One. Jackson was to deliver the eulogy at Parks' funeral service. She later said: "As far back as I remember, I could never think in terms of accepting physical abuse without some form of retaliation if possible. A memorial service was held there the following morning. She persuaded Martin Luther King, who was generally reluctant to endorse local candidates, to appear with Conyers, thereby boosting the novice candidate's profile. in 1932. Parks as a catalyst of the civil rights movement, her legacy as a voice for the black community, and her service to the nation in passionate speeches Wonder if that will cuase outrage. appreciated. Mrs Parks' body was then moved to the Rotunda on Capitol Hill in Washington, where more long lines of people queued to pay . On December 1, 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks, age 42, refused to obey bus driver James Blake's order that she give up her seat to make room District of Columbia Army National Guard. Upon her death in 2005, she was the first woman to lie in honor in the Capitol Rotunda. It will give you a sense of the kind of man Mike Ilitch was, he wrote. Keith, himself an important legal figure in the civil rights movement, worked to find Parks a new, safer apartment at the Riverfront Apartments in Detroit, according to the Sports Business Daily. Ilitch was known for his. Photo: Getty Images. In spite of her fame and constant speaking engagements, Parks was not a wealthy woman. An approximately 4' x 6' banner, Select from premium Rosa Parks Funeral of the highest quality. The entire episode was made public in 2014 in a story from Sports Business Daily. / CBS/AP. [2] Parks lived just a mile from the center of the riot that took place in Detroit in 1967, and she considered housing discrimination a major factor that provoked the disorder. He was an extremely influential and deeply involved member of the city he called home, his friends and family, and the sports community at large. Former US President Bill Clinton led the tributes at the ceremony in Detroit, Michigan, her home since 1957. . Happy Birthday to the Mother of the Movement, Rosa Nov. 2, 2005. She rode on its integrated trolley. This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 08:29. She and her husband never had children and she outlived her only sibling. The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel in her honor. Restaurant tycoon Mike Ilitch died on Friday at the age of 87. Who was Rosa Parks's lawyer? [62], Parks participated in activism nationally during the mid-1960s, traveling to support the Selma-to-Montgomery Marches, the Freedom Now Party,[17] and the Lowndes County Freedom Organization. Parks was interred between her husband and mother at Detroit's Woodlawn Cemetery in the chapel's mausoleum. In a 1992 interview with National Public Radio's Lynn Neary, Parks recalled: I did not want to be mistreated, I did not want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid for. That story came to light thanks to Damon Keith, a Detroit. Jesse Jackson called for a White House conference on civil rights, and likened Parks to an eagle. In 1999, Parks filmed a cameo appearance for the television series Touched by an Angel. Americans continued to pay tribute today to the woman known as the mother of the civil rights movement. Death of Rosa Parks (1913-2005), Official Funeral Program. Questions and Answers ( 127 ) How was Rosa Parks involved with the NAACP? Aretha Franklin Ill Fly Away Rosa Parks Funeral 2005. There will never be another Rosa Parks, said Moses Fisher, a Nashville, Tenn., resident waiting for the chance to get a seat. Advertisement Detroit - Thousands of people prepared to honour Rosa Parks at her funeral Wednesday, after at least 60 000 paid tribute to the civil rights pioneer in her native state of Mourners pay tribute to Rosa Parks Clinton recalls being inspired by civil rights pioneer. He requested a reward and when Parks paid him, he demanded more. She decided to move with her mother into an apartment for senior citizens. At age 81, Parks was robbed and assaulted in her home in central Detroit on August 30, 1994. You allowed the rebirth of hope, he said. With no fanfare, Ilitch continued paying for the apartment until Parks died in 2005, Keith said. Former President Bill Clinton and singer Aretha Franklin are among the thousands who paid their respects to Parks, who died Oct. 24 at age 92. 2. Her husband lost his job as a barber at Maxwell Air Force Base[60] after his boss forbade him to talk about his wife or the legal case. It was just time there was opportunity for me to take a stand to express the way I felt about being treated in that manner. Rosa Parks, ne Rosa Louise McCauley, (born February 4, 1913, Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S.died October 24, 2005, Detroit, Michigan), American civil rights activist whose refusal to relinquish her seat on a public bus precipitated the 1955-56 Montgomery bus boycott in Alabama, which became the spark that ignited the civil rights movement in the United That story came to light thanks to Damon Keith, a Detroit native and federal judge. Her funeral service was seven hours long and was held on November 2, 2005, at the Greater Grace Temple Church in Detroit. He was an extremely influential and deeply involved member of the city he called home, his friends and family, and the sports community at large. In December 1955, Rosa Parks ' refusal as a Black woman to give up her seat on a segregated bus in Montgomery, It was revealed in an article published by the Sports Business Daily in 2014 that Ilitch had paid for Rosa Parks' apartment for more than a decade until her death in 2005. (2 Nov 2005) SHOTLIST1. Please enter valid email address to continue. Pay your subscription bill. According to the law, no passenger would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. The assailant, Joseph Skipper, broke down the door but claimed he had chased away an intruder. She was also active in the Black Power movement and the support of political prisoners in the US. Parks responded, "I don't think I should have to stand up." The Women's Political Council was the first group to officially endorse the boycott. Her family was plagued with illness; she and her husband had suffered stomach ulcers for years and both required hospitalization. Wide shot of mourners inside church where funeral was held for Rosa Parks2. Javascript must be enabled in order to access C-SPAN videos. Parks was incapable of managing her own financial affairs by this time due to age-related physical and mental decline. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 October 24, 2005) was an African American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress later called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement". Reverend Jesse Jackson delivered the eulogy, while other participants, including former President Bill Clinton, paid tribute to Ms. Amazon Fresh grocery store confirmed for the Sacramento area. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 October 24, 2005) was an African-American activist in the civil rights movement best known for her pivotal role in the Montgomery bus boycott. [85] It was her last appearance on screen; Parks began to suffer from health problems due to old age. 2857 bus on which Parks was riding before her arrest (a GM "old-look" transit bus, serial number 1132), is now a museum exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum. Coco Vs Dwc Yield. Robinson believed it important to seize the opportunity and stayed up all night mimeographing over 35,000 handbills announcing a bus boycott. Thank you for allowing us to step on your mighty shoulders.. Dozens of public buses stood idle for months, severely damaging the bus transit company's finances, until the city repealed its law requiring segregation on public buses following the US Supreme Court ruling in Browder v. Gayle that it was unconstitutional. Ralph Abernathy suggested the name "Montgomery Improvement Association" (MIA). Former President Clinton, his wife, Sen. Hillary Clinton, and others paid their respects at Parks open casket before the start of the funeral service that included the prayer in Find the perfect Rosa Parks Funeral stock photos and editorial news pictures from Getty Images. I celebrate your strength to this day. [Little Caesar's] Mike Illitch [sic], Founder Quietly PAID Rosa Park's [sic] rent for years until her passing. [87], In 2016, Parks's former residence in Detroit was threatened with demolition. Parks' arrest for refusing to surrender her bus seat to a white man 50 years ago sparked US civil rights movement that ended legal Reminds me of the funeral of the Min senator a few years ago. Senate Concurrent Resolution 61, 109th Congress, 1st Session, was agreed to October 29, 2005. There was only one Rosa Parks. Al Sharpton, who has Rosa Parks, the unassuming seamstress whose small act of defiance on a city bus 50 years ago helped spark the modern civil rights movement, was memorialized The United States Congress recognized her as The First Lady of Civil Rights and The Mother of the Freedom Struggle.. With her body and casket returned to Detroit, for two days, Parks lay in repose at the Rosa Parks spent only a couple of hours in jail. Occupation: Civil rights activist. [2] Parks was not the first person to resist bus segregation, but the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) believed that she was the best candidate for seeing through a court challenge after her arrest for civil disobedience in violating Alabama segregation laws, and she helped inspire the Black community to boycott the Montgomery buses for over a year. She became an international icon of resistance to racial segregation, and organized and collaborated with civil rights leaders, including Edgar Nixon and Martin Luther King Jr. At the time, Parks was employed as a seamstress at a local department store and was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. After being found guilty and fined $10, plus $4 in court costs (combined total equivalent to $142 in 2021),[37] Parks appealed her conviction and formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. Reuters Her funeral service was seven hours long and was held on November 2, 2005, at the Greater Grace Temple Church in Detroit. The trial lasted 30 minutes. After the funeral, Parks casket was put on an antique, gold-trimmed, horse-drawn carriage for the seven-mile procession to the cemetery. Published 11:52 AM EST, Wed February 15, 2017 but they meant so much for Rosa Parks, who Nearly 800,000 mourners turned out from Monday night to Wednesday night to pay their final respects to civil rights legend Rosa Parks, according to the Detroit Mayor's Office and Police Department. In Montgomery, Alabama on December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks is jailed for refusing to give up her seat on a public bus to a white man, a violation of the city's racial segregation laws. The chapel was renamed the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel in her honor. Parks became a NAACP activist in 1943, participating in several high profile civil rights . 4,000 throng Rosa Parks' funeral in Detroit. "[37] The Black man sitting next to her gave up his seat. Those who knew Mike Ilitch, the Little Caesars founder and Detroit Tigers owner who died last Friday, have spent the past few days fondly remembering his impact on friends, on Detroit residents, and on the sports community. The Detroit Community Choir from the Funeral of Civil Rights legend Rosa Parks at Greater Grace Temple in Detroit. Aretha Franklin sings during the funeral for Rosa. She was born on February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama. Congressman Jim Cooper (D-TN), along with Congressional Black Caucus Chair Rep. Joyce Beatty (D-OH) and Rep. Terri Sewell (D-AL), introduced last week the Rosa Parks Day Act ( HR 5111 ). The house lived in by Rosa Parks's brother, Sylvester McCauley, his wife Daisy, and their 13 children, and where Rosa Parks often visited and stayed after leaving Montgomery, was bought by her niece Rhea McCauley for $500 and donated to the artist. You have certainly earned it, said Bishop Charles Ellis III of Greater Grace Temple, who led the service. [35], Initially, she did not notice that the bus driver was the same man, James F. Blake, who had left her in the rain in 1943. A federal judge, Damon Keith, spoke out about this, and help. Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley on February 4, 1913 in Tuskegee, Alabama. '"[55]:424. City officials in Montgomery and Detroit announced on October 27, 2005, that the front seats of their city buses would be reserved with black ribbons in honor of Parks until her funeral. The No. Group of mourners hold a tribute to civil rights pioneer Rosa Parks while waiting to catch a glimpse of the horse-drawn casson that carried her body. Used to just get relected it was just sick. Due to economic sanctions used against activists, she lost her job at the department store. "[53] This movement also sparked riots leading up to the 1956 Sugar Bowl. Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley on February 4, 1913 in Tuskegee, Alabama. Rosa Parks held a series of low-paying jobs before U.S. Rep. John Conyers hired her in 1965 to work in his Detroit office. District of Columbia Army National Guard. One of the speakers, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice, said that if it had not been for Parks, she would probably have never become the Secretary of State. who paid for rosa parks funeral. For more than a decade, Ilitch had quietly paid for Rosa Parks apartment in downtown Detroit, according to CNN affiliate WXYZ. On December 1, 1955, in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks rejected bus driver James F. Blake's order to vacate a row of four seats in the "colored" section in favor of a White passenger, once the "White" section was filled. The more we gave in, the more we complied with that kind of treatment, the more oppressive it became.[51]. Repeatedly bullied by White children in her neighborhood, Parks often fought back physically. Learning of Parks's move, Little Caesars owner Mike Ilitch offered to pay for her housing expenses for as long as necessary. Little Caesars founder Mike Ilitch passed away on Friday. A statue of Rosa Parks was unveiled in Montgomery, Alabama. Nearly 50 years earlier, she was a 42-year-old tailors assistant at a department store in Montgomery, Ala., when she was arrested and fined $10 plus $4 in court costs for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery city bus. Visitors pay their respects as the casket of civil rights pioneer Rosa Parks lies in honor at the Rotunda of the Capitol on Oct. 30, 2005, in Washington. Rosa Parks was born Rosa Louise McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama, on February 4, 1913, to Leona (ne Edwards), a teacher, and James McCauley, a carpenter. "You have certainly earned it. [64], Like many Detroit Blacks, Parks remained particularly concerned about housing issues. A memorial service was held at St. Paul AME church in Washington, DC on the afternoon of October 31, 2005. She was securely married and employed, was regarded as possessing a quiet and dignified demeanor, and was politically savvy. Following the 1994 attack, Parks wanted to move somewhere safer but couldn't afford it, as she'd been donating all her speaking fees. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was an African American civil rights activist. But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The boycott lasted more than a year. She remained there until 1987. The notorious Scottsboro case had been brought to prominence by the Communist Party. Her refusal to give up her seat on a bus on . On the day of Parks's trialDecember 5, 1955the WPC distributed the 35,000 leaflets. Rosa married Raymond Parks, a barber from Montgomery, In. [h/t CNN ] Claudette Bond, a 62-year-old resident of Southfield, Mich., was the first person in line outside the glass doors of Greater Grace Temple, waiting since 6 p.m. Tuesday for one of 2,000 public seats for the funeral of the civil rights pioneer. Rosa Louise McCauley Parks was born on February 4, 1913. American civil rights activist (19132005), Booking photo of Parks following her February 1956 arrest during the, Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 1, Police report on Parks, December 1, 1955, page 2. The Rev. Parks was initially going to be buried a family plot in Detroits Woodlawn Cemetery, next to her husband and mother. [86] Several of Parks's family members alleged that her financial affairs had been mismanaged. All Rights Reserved. Blake called the police to arrest Parks. Her body was to be entombed in a mausoleum along with those of her husband and mother. In all, tens of thousands came to pay their respects at the museum. BTW the dumbasses ran out of gas in the hurst. The . She remembered him saying, "I don't know, but the law's the law, and you're under arrest. ", "Rosa L. Parks Collection. Rosa Parks, the unassuming seamstress whose small act of defiance on a city bus 50 years ago helped spark the modern civil rights movement, was memorialized today in (2 Nov 2005) SHOTLIST1. If more Whites needed seats, Blacks were to move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if there was no room, leave the bus. Philip Robert Cousin, a senior bishop of the AME Church, eulogized that Parks was a diamond that had been polished in the hands of God. In 1992, Parks published Rosa Parks: My Story, an autobiography aimed at younger readers, which recounts her life leading to her decision to keep her seat on the bus. Interest will be charged to your account from the purchase date if the balance is not paid in full within 6 months. The Paducah-McCracken County NAACP's Rosa Parks: Power of One banquet, will be held March 11 at Broadway United Methodist Church. Rosa Parks ignited the most significant social movement inmodern American history to finish the work that spawned the Civil Warand redeem the promise of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments. Schools were effectively segregated, and services in Black neighborhoods substandard. They moved to Detroit with Rosa Parks' mother, Leona McCauley, in 1957. Early life[edit] Born on April 14, 1912, Blake was draftedinto the Armyon December 23, 1943, at Fort McClellanin Anniston, Alabama. This will never happen again. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, "Why do you push us around?" Many remember Rosa Parks simply as a woman who refused to give up her seat on a bus, but her contributions to and role in Black History can not be understated or under-appreciated. Get browser notifications for breaking news, live events, and exclusive reporting. We shall not be moved. Parks said, "My resisting being mistreated on the bus did not begin with that particular arrest. June 1, 2022. by the aicpa statements on standards for tax services are. Parks was a 42-year-old tailors assistant at a Montgomery department store in December 1955 when she was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a city bus. There she put in 10-hour days and was paid 75 cents for each piece of the aprons and skirts she completed, which added up to enough to live on. [54], The group agreed that a new organization was needed to lead the boycott effort if it were to continue. Rosa Parks was a civil rights activist who refused to surrender her seat to a white passenger on a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama. YEARS IN BUSINESS. Parks being fingerprinted by Lieutenant D.H. Lackey on February 22, 1956, when she was arrested again, along with 73 other people, after a grand jury indicted 113 African Americans for organizing the Montgomery bus boycott. who paid for rosa parks funeral. Parks refused and he attacked her. Mike Ilitch paid her rent until she died in 2005. In February 1987, she co-founded, with Elaine Eason Steele, the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, an institute that runs the "Pathways to Freedom" bus tours which introduce young people to important civil rights and Underground Railroad sites throughout the country. She refused on principle to surrender her seat because of her race, which was required by the law in Montgomery at the time. Reverend Jesse Jackson delivered the eulogy, while other participants, including former President Bill Clinton, paid tribute to Ms. An approximately 4' x 6' banner, painted by the artist Helen Longino on a sheet, and brought to the funeral of Rosa Parks, where it was signed by hundreds. Although widely honored in later years, she also suffered for her act; she was fired from her job, and received death threats for years afterwards. Former President Bill Clinton Website Virtual Tour Directions More Info. And the other three people moved, but I didn't. the U.S. Capitol Rotunda has been considered "the most suitable place for the This poster dates back to the assassination of Rev. For more than a decade, Ilitch had quietly paid for Rosa Parks' apartment in downtown Detroit, according to CNN affiliate WXYZ . Parks worked closely with Martin Luther King Jr.. "[20] She continued as secretary until 1957. A neighborhood manhunt led to Skipper's capture and reported beating. 4145 to Place Statue of Rosa Parks in U.S. Capitol", "Michigan Memorial Highway Act (Excerpt) Act 142 of 2001, 250.1098 Rosa Parks Memorial Highway", "Tennessee Career Center at Metro Center", "State building renamed to honor Rosa Parks", "No, March Fong Eu Isn't The First Woman To Have A California State Building Named After Her (But It Was Close)", "Detroit's Rosa Parks Transit Center opens Tuesday", "West Valley City renames street after Rosa Parks", "Presidential Proclamation100th Anniversary of the Birth of Rosa Parks", "OBSERVING THE 100TH BIRTHDAY OF ROSA PARKS", "Rosa Parks stamp unveiled for late civil rights icon's 100th birthday", "Rosa Parks: First Statue of African-American Female to Grace Capitol", "After years in Lockdown, Rosa Parks' Papers Head To Library of Congress", "Why Rosa Parks' house now stands in Berlin", "Black Fashion Museum Collection Finds a Fine Home With Smithsonian", "Ruth Bonner, Woman Who Helped Open Smithsonian African-American Museum, Dies", "Descended from a slave, this family helped to open the African American Museum with Obama", "Statue commemorating Rosa Parks unveiled", "Alabama unveils statue of civil rights icon Rosa Parks", "Biden's new-look Oval Office is a nod to past US leadership", "Rosa Parks boycotts NAACP awards ceremony", "Doctor Who Series 11 Episode 3 Rosa", "Barbie launches new 'Inspiring Women' dolls honoring Rosa Parks, Sally Ride", "Barbie Releases Dolls Honoring Rosa Parks, Sally Ride", "Nicki Minaj Responds to Rosa Parks Lyrics Criticism", "Nicki Minaj Slammed For Rosa Parks Reference in Preview of New Song 'Yikes', "Rosa Parks documentary on Peacock redefines the legend's courageous life", "Film to focus on Georgia Tech, fight against segregation at 1956 Sugar Bowl", "Rosa Parks, Strategic Activist (sidebar)", The Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, Parks article in the Encyclopedia of Alabama, Rosa Parks bus on display at the Henry Ford Museum, Intolerable Conditions: Teaching About Northern Racism Through Rosa Parkss Detroit, "Civil Rights Pioneer Rosa Parks 19132005", Complete audio/video and newspaper archive of the Montgomery bus boycott, Rosa Parks: cadre of working-class movement that ended Jim Crow, Les Meres et Debutantes Club of Greater Lansing, NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights, Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States, Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement, Green v. County School Board of New Kent County, Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights, Council for United Civil Rights Leadership, Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights, Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)", List of lynching victims in the United States, Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, African American founding fathers of the United States, Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument, Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument, Historically black colleges and universities, Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH), National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC), Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL), Black players in professional American football, Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War (1958), Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (1984), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rosa_Parks&oldid=1142773304, Activists for African-American civil rights, American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent, Civil rights protests in the United States, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Articles with unsourced statements from November 2018, Pages containing links to subscription-only content, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0.

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